fiduciary structures

Trusts and loss
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Trusts and loss of capacity: a global challenge and a necessary response in fiduciary governance

Loss of capacity as a new systemic risk in trust structures  The loss of mental capacity is today one of the most delicate – and yet still insufficiently addressed – issues in wealth planning through trusts.  The increasing prevalence of dementia and other forms of cognitive vulnerability makes this risk ever more tangible. Where fiduciaries and advisers fail to consider such scenarios from the very inception of the trust, incapacity may become a destabilising legal variable, capable of undermining the entire fiduciary framework.  A global problem without uniform standards  Loss of capacity represents one of the principal areas of uncertainty within international trust structures. In many jurisdictions, clear legal rules are lacking as to what occurs when a central actor – whether the settlor, trustee, or holder of reserved powers – is no longer able to properly exercise their role.  Legislative gaps emerge sharply when considering comparative experiences across legal systems.  In Chile, for instance, civil law continues to rely on a model of total interdiction: once incapacity is declared, the individual is entirely deprived of legal capacity. Proceedings may take up to two years, often resulting in the freezing of assets and a significant increase in legal and financial burdens for families.  In China, the opposite difficulty may arise, as the individual may remain legally capable throughout judicial proceedings, even when factual incapacity has already begun to compromise trust-related decision-making.  In the Middle East, the Dubai International Financial Centre (DIFC), despite having trust legislation grounded in common law principles, lacks an express statutory definition of mental capacity. The matter is addressed more extensively under UAE civil procedure law, where incapacity triggers guardianship proceedings and where powers of attorney automatically lapse, without mechanisms equivalent to enduring powers of attorney in Anglo-Saxon jurisdictions.  Even in well-established trust jurisdictions such as the Cayman Islands, definitional uncertainty persists. Incapacity has recently been characterised as a question of fact, determined at the time of the relevant decision and assessed in relation to the specific act at issue. This confirms that capacity is not an absolute status, but rather a contextual condition evaluated in light of the particular circumstances.  Recognising incapacity: a practical and relational challenge  Attention must therefore shift to the internal governance of the trust.  Loss of capacity must be addressed proactively, as early warning signs may easily remain concealed, particularly in an era where communication increasingly takes place via e-mail and text messages. By contrast, changes are often far more evident during in-person meetings or telephone conversations.  Vulnerability beyond ageing  Incapacity is not solely linked to advanced age. It may also arise in situations involving substance abuse, bereavement, divorce, family coercion, or other circumstances of vulnerability.  Maintaining a close connection not only with the settlor, but also with the broader family context, may assist trustees in identifying behavioural anomalies and emerging red flags before they become irreversible.  The settlor and reserved powers: the most critical point  One of the most sensitive aspects concerns the extremely common situations in which the settlor retains a direct role within the trust structure, whether as protector or through the reservation of significant powers, such as the appointment and removal of trustees or investment decision-making authority.  In such circumstances, full mental capacity becomes an essential element to monitor. Should the settlor make decisions detrimental to the trust, trustees may face exposure to claims alleging breach of fiduciary duty.  Family disputes and generational transition  Loss of capacity often produces disruptive familial consequences.  As the central family figure loses authority, disputes, tensions and power struggles may emerge. In this context, trustees may play a valuable role as independent third parties, facilitating communication and promoting a pragmatic approach that reduces the risk of irreparable deterioration in family relationships.  Documentary governance as the primary response  The most effective solution remains careful planning.  The optimal moment to address incapacity is during the drafting of the trust instrument itself, by providing:  -clear criteria for determining loss of capacity  -procedures for the automatic cessation of roles upon incapacity  -mechanisms for the orderly replacement of power-holders  -continuity of administration, ensuring the trust is not paralysed  Planning for incapacity in the trust deed  It is advisable to incorporate express provisions regulating the assessment of incapacity, for example by referring such determination to:  -a competent court ruling  -a medical certificate issued by a qualified physician  -an independent third-party evaluation  Trust structures should also ensure that trustees may continue to exercise their powers without dependence upon the consent of an incapacitated individual, thereby safeguarding both the trust assets and administrative continuity.  Conclusion: we cannot wait until incapacity strikes  Loss of mental capacity is among the most pressing contemporary challenges in trust law, one destined to intensify with ageing populations and the expansion of cross-border wealth structures.  While careful drafting cannot eliminate the complexity of incapacity, it can significantly mitigate practical disruption and litigation risk, preserving the trust’s effectiveness even in moments of profound fragility.   Chiara Pascale  Paolo Gaeta & Associati

Planning your legacy: will or testamentary Trust?
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Planning your legacy: will or testamentary Trust?

Abstract  Deciding how your assets will be handled after your lifetime is more than a legal exercise; it is an act of care. A will and a testamentary trust may appear similar, but they serve different purposes and create different outcomes for your family. Understanding how they complement — and differ from — each other is essential for building a long-term, reliable succession plan.  The will: a traditional way to express your wishes  A will is the classic instrument for deciding how your estate should be distributed once you pass away. It answers a precise question: who inherits what. Once the will takes effect, the heirs become the direct owners of the assets you have assigned to them. The will does not regulate how those assets will be managed in the future, nor does it provide long-term protection for beneficiaries who may need guidance, oversight, or structure.  A will is therefore a declaration of your intentions, valid and complete at a single moment in time. It remains an essential document, but its function ends as soon as the property changes hands.  The testamentary Trust: protecting and managing wealth over time  A testamentary trust begins where the will ends. Even though it is created within a will, it does not transfer assets directly to the beneficiaries. Instead, those assets are placed into a separate, protected structure that comes into effect only after your death. From that moment, the trustee becomes responsible for managing and safeguarding the assets according to the instructions you have given. The trustee does not own the assets in a personal capacity; they administer them exclusively for the benefit of your chosen beneficiaries.  This structure allows you to shape not only the destination of your wealth, but also the way in which it will be handled and preserved over the years. It is particularly valuable when family relationships are complex, when beneficiaries are young or vulnerable, or when the estate includes business interests or international assets that require continuity and discipline.  A testamentary trust provides a layer of protection that a simple will cannot offer: it avoids fragmentation, preserves long-term stability, and ensures that your vision is respected through time.  Two instruments, one purpose: securing your legacy  The difference between a will and a testamentary trust is therefore substantial.   A will distributes wealth; a testamentary trust governs it. The first is a statement of intent. The second is a long-term arrangement capable of carrying that intent forward responsibly and coherently.  Modern estate planning often benefits from using both instruments together. The will expresses your wishes, while the trust ensures that those wishes are carried out in a structured, protected, and continuous way.  Conclusion: planning with confidence  Choosing how to manage your legacy is one of the most meaningful decisions you can make. A will may be sufficient in straightforward situations, but when you wish to add protection, stability, and long-term guidance, a testamentary trust becomes a powerful and reassuring complement.  At Studio Gaeta, we help clients around the world understand the role of these instruments and design a succession plan that reflects their values and protects their loved ones. Our guidance ensures clarity, compliance, and continuity — the foundation of every well-structured estate plan.  Contact Studio Gaeta today to explore how a will and a testamentary trust can work together to secure your future and the future of those you care about.  Chiara Pascale Paolo Gaeta & Associati

Trusts and Foundations in the DIFC
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Trusts and Foundations in the DIFC: The 2018 Reforms and Opportunities for Wealth Planning

In recent years, the United Arab Emirates has strengthened its position as an international hub for family wealth management and protection. In particular, the Dubai International Financial Centre (DIFC) and the Abu Dhabi Global Market (ADGM) — the country’s two financial free zones — have developed modern, competitive legislation on trusts and foundations, legal instruments widely used worldwide for asset protection, succession, and estate planning. DIFC and ADGM: The Free Zones for Fiduciary Structures The DIFC and the ADGM are the only jurisdictions in the UAE where it is possible to establish trusts and foundations. Both operate within the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) framework but have their own legal systems based on English common law and independent courts. This regulatory autonomy makes them particularly attractive to investors and families with complex, internationally relevant assets. The 2018 DIFC Reforms In March 2018, the DIFC introduced a new Foundations Law (DIFC Law No. 3/2018) and amended its existing Trust Law (DIFC Law No. 4/2018), with the aim of providing greater flexibility to settlors, founders, and beneficiaries. These legislative changes enhance asset protection, introduce the ability to convert foundations into companies, and strengthen fiduciary governance. The following sections examine these three aspects in detail. 1. Stronger Asset Protection Before the reform, transfers of assets to a trust or foundation could be set aside if the settlor was insolvent at the time of transfer or if there was evidence of intent to defraud creditors. Now, however, the burden of proof lies with the creditors, who must demonstrate both that the settlor intended to defraud them and that the transfer caused the insolvency. In addition, a three-year limitation period has been introduced for actions relating to trusts or foundations. Further protection has also been added regarding foreign judgments, which cannot be enforced if inconsistent with DIFC law. This framework positions the DIFC among the world’s most protective jurisdictions for those seeking to shield assets from external risks. 2. Conversion of Foundations into Companies A key innovation is the possibility to convert a foundation into a DIFC company. Previously, only the reverse process — converting a company into a foundation — was permitted. This new flexibility responds to the needs of families and businesses wishing to restructure in line with new wealth or governance strategies. 3. Strengthened Fiduciary Governance The revised rules provide that trustees and officers of a foundation or trust must cease to act if affected by a foreign judgment, thus preventing conflicts that could compromise the entity’s management. Why These Reforms Matter With these reforms, the DIFC confirms its status as a global centre of excellence for international wealth planning, on par with — and in some respects superior to — other top-tier jurisdictions such as the United Kingdom, Jersey, or Singapore. In particular, the DIFC’s so-called “firewall provisions” are among the strongest, allowing powers to be reserved to the settlor without risking challenges to the validity or genuineness of the trust or foundation. Conclusions The reforms introduced in 2018 have consolidated the DIFC’s position as a strategic hub for the management, protection, and transfer of wealth on an international scale. By limiting creditors’ claims, restricting the enforcement of foreign laws, and introducing flexible tools such as the conversion of foundations into companies, the DIFC has become a preferred choice for: -High-net-worth families -Family-owned businesses -International investors seeking legal stability and asset protection The message is clear: the DIFC has adopted forward-looking, sophisticated legislation that can adapt swiftly to the evolving needs of global clients. Chiara Pascale Paolo Gaeta & Associati

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